Observational techniques

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Observation basically means watching something and taking note of anything it does. For instance, you might observe a bird flying by watching it closely. The sciences of biology and astronomy have their historical basis in observations by amateurs. There is pleasure in observation, which explains the participation of hobbyists.

The role of Observation in the Scientific Method

The scientific method includes the following steps:

1. 'observe' a phenomenon,
2. 'Hypothesize' an explanation for the phenomenon,
3. 'predict' a logical consequence of the guess,
4. 'test' for the prediction, and
5. 'review' for any mistakes.

Observation takes place in the first and fourth steps.

Example: The Big Bang

In cosmology, the original observation was that we seem to live in a firmament. The sun seemed to rise and set, travelling on a huge transparent bowl which was set around our world. Various paradigms which explained our world, came and went, but the universe seemed static. Even Einstein believed this.

Observation: Hubble's redshift

In the 1920s Edwin Hubble of Mount Wilson observatory [1] (http://www.mtwilson.edu/his/art/g1a4.htm), observed that the galaxies, on the whole, were moving away from each other. Thus we live in an 'expanding universe'. The speed of expansion was apparently constant (Hubble's 'constant'), as evidenced by light from the galaxies, which was doppler-shifted in color toward the red side of the spectrum.

Einstein correspondingly modified his field equation. See Cosmological constant

Hypothesis about the abundance of the elements

If the universe is expanding, then it must have been much smaller and therefore hotter and denser in the past. George Gamow hypothesized that the abundance of the elements in the Periodic Table of the Elements, might be accounted for by nuclear reactions in a hot dense universe. He was disputed by Fred Hoyle, who invented the term 'Big Bang' to disparage it. Fermi and others noted that this process would have stopped after only the light elements were created, and thus did not account for the abundance of heavier elements.

Gamow's prediction: One consequence of this hypothesis was a 5–10 kelvin black body radiation temperature for the universe, after it cooled during the expansion.

Observation: the microwave background

In 1965, Arno A. Penzias and Robert W. Wilson announced that microwave radiation was surrounding us in all directions, at a level which was of the order of magnitude predicted by Gamow. Penzias and Wilson got the Nobel Prize for this discovery.

Big Bang Hypothesis now corroborated

After this piece of evidence, Gamow's hypothesis was now more likely. The age of the universe is currently estimated to be 13.7 billion years after the Big Bang.

Current observations

More refined measurements, such as those from the COBE satellite, are best fit by radiation from a pure 2.7 kelvin black body.

Reference: J.A. Peacock, A.F. Heavens, A.T. Davies (eds.), 1989. Physics of the Early Universe. Proceedings of the 36th Scottish Universities Summer School in Physics (SUSSP). ISBN 0905945190.

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The role of Observation in Philosophy

"Observe always that everything is the result of a change, and get used to thinking that there is nothing Nature loves so well as to change existing forms and to make new ones like them." Meditations. iv. 36. -Marcus Aurelius

Observation in philosophical terms is the process of filtering sensory information through the thought process. Input is received via hearing, sight, smell, taste, or touch and then analyzed through either rational or irrational thought. You see a man beat his wife; you observe that such an action is either right or wrong.

The defining characteristic of observation is that it involves drawing conclusions, as opposed to simply registering that something has happened.

Observing is part of the process of developing a morality.

In marketing and the social sciences, observational research (or field research) is a social research technique that involves the direct observation of phenomena in their natural setting. This differentiates it from experimental research in which a quasi-artificial environment is created to control for spurious factors, and where at least one of the variables is manipulated as part of the experiment.

Contents

1 Observational techniques in context 2 Three Approaches 3 In Marketing Research 4 See also 5 List of related topics

Observational techniques in context

Compared with quantitative research and experimental research, observational research tends to be less reliable but more valid. The main advantage of observational research is flexibility. The researchers can change their approach as needed. Also it measures behaviour directly, not reports of behaviour or intensions. The main disadvantage is it is limited to behavioural variables. It cannot be used to study cognitive or affective variables. Another disadvantage is that observational data is not usually generalizable.

Three Approaches

Generally, there are three types of observational research:

• Covert observational research - The researchers do not identify themselves. Either they mix in with the subjects undetected, or they observe from a distance. The advantages of this approach are: (1) It is not necessary to get the subjects’ cooperation, and (2) The subjects’ behaviour will not be contaminated by the presence of the researcher. Some researchers have ethical misgivings with the deceit involved in this approach.
• Overt observational research - The researchers identify themselves as researchers and explain the purpose of their observations. The problem with this approach is subjects tend to modify their behaviour when they know they are being watched. They portray their “ideal self” rather than their true self.
• Researcher Participation - The researcher participates in what they are observing so as to get a finer appreciation of the phenomena. Researchers that participate tend to lose their objectivity.

In Marketing Research

In marketing research, the most frequently used types of observational techniques are:

• Personal observation
  • observing products in use to detect usage patterns and problems
  • observing license plates in store parking lots
  • determining the socio-economic status of shoppers
  • determining the level of package scrutiny
  • determining the time it takes to make a purchase decision
• Mechanical observation
  • eye-tracking analysis while subjects watch advertisements
    • oculometers - what the subject is looking at
    • pupilometers - how interested is the viewer
  • electronic checkout scanners - records purchase behaviour
  • on-site cameras in stores
  • Nielsen box for tracking television station watching
  • voice pitch meters - measures emotional reactions
  • psychogalvanometer - measures galvanic skin response
• Audits
  • retail audits to determine the quality of service in stores
  • inventory audits to determine product acceptance
  • shelf space audits
• Trace Analysis
  • credit card records
  • computer cookie records
  • garbology - looking for traces of purchase patterns in garbage
  • detecting store traffic patterns by observing the wear in the floor (long term) or the dirt on the floor (short term)
  • exposure to advertisements
• Content analysis
  • observe the content of magazines, television broadcasts, radio broadcasts, or newspapers, either articles, programs, or advertisements

See also

• marketing
• marketing research
• experimental techniques
• qualitative marketing research
• quantitative marketing research

List of related topics

• list of marketing topics
• list of management topics
• list of economics topics
• list of finance topics
• list of accounting topics