Ancient History Sourcebook:
Josephus (37- after 93 CE):
The Roman
Army in the First Century CE
Book 3 :Chapter 5: DESCRIPTION OF THE ROMAN ARMIES AND ROMAN
CAMPS
1. NOW here one cannot but admire at the precaution of the Romans,
in providing themselves of such household servants, as might not only serve at
other times for the common offices of life, but might also be of advantage to
them in their wars. And, indeed, if any one does but attend to the other parts
of their military discipline, he will be forced to confess that their
obtaining so large a dominion hath been the acquisition of their valor, and
not the bare gift of fortune; for they do not begin to use their weapons first
in time of war, nor do they then put their hands first into motion, while they
avoided so to do in times of peace; but, as if their weapons did always cling
to them, they have never any truce from warlike exercises; nor do they stay
till times of war admonish them to use them; for their military exercises
differ not at all from the real use of their arms, but every soldier is every
day exercised, and that with great diligence, as if it were in time of war,
which is the reason why they bear the fatigue of battles so easily; for
neither can any disorder remove them from their usual regularity, nor can fear
affright them out of it, nor can labor tire them; which firmness of conduct
makes them always to overcome those that have not the same firmness; nor would
he be mistaken that should call those their exercises unbloody battles, and
their battles bloody exercises. Nor can their enemies easily surprise them
with the suddenness of their incursions; for as soon as they have marched into
an enemy's land, they do not begin to fight till they have walled their camp
about; nor is the fence they raise rashly made, or uneven; nor do they all
abide ill it, nor do those that are in it take their places at random; but if
it happens that the ground is uneven, it is first leveled: their camp is also
four-square by measure, and carpenters are ready, in great numbers, with their
tools, to erect their buildings for them.
2. As for what is within the camp, it is set apart for tents, but
the outward circumference hath the resemblance to a wall, and is adorned with
towers at equal distances, where between the towers stand the engines for
throwing arrows and darts, and for slinging stones, and where they lay all
other engines that can annoy the enemy, all ready for their several
operations. They also erect four gates, one at every side of the
circumference, and those large enough for the entrance of the beasts, and wide
enough for making excursions, if occasion should require. They divide the camp
within into streets, very conveniently, and place the tents of the commanders
in the middle; but in the very midst of all is the general's own tent, in the
nature of a temple, insomuch, that it appears to be a city built on the
sudden, with its market-place, and place for handicraft trades, and with seats
for the officers superior and inferior, where, if any differences arise, their
causes are heard and determined. The camp, and all that is in it, is
encompassed with a wall round about, and that sooner than one would imagine,
and this by the multitude and the skill of the laborers; and, if occasion
require, a trench is drawn round the whole, whose depth is four cubits, and
its breadth equal.
3. When they have thus secured themselves, they live together by
companies, with quietness and decency, as are all their other affairs managed
with good order and security. Each company hath also their wood, and their
corn, and their water brought them, when they stand in need of them; for they
neither sup nor dine as they please themselves singly, but all together. Their
times also for sleeping, and watching, and rising are notified beforehand by
the sound of trumpets, nor is any thing done without such a signal; and in the
morning the soldiery go every one to their centurions, and these centurions to
their tribunes, to salute them; with whom all the superior officers go to the
general of the whole army, who then gives them of course the watchword and
other orders, to be by them cared to all that are under their command; which
is also observed when they go to fight, and thereby they turn themselves about
on the sudden, when there is occasion for making sallies, as they come back
when they are recalled in crowds also.
4. Now when they are to go out of their camp, the trumpet gives a
sound, at which time nobody lies still, but at the first intimation they take
down their tents, and all is made ready for their going out; then do the
trumpets sound again, to order them to get ready for the march; then do they
lay their baggage suddenly upon their mules, and other beasts of burden, and
stand, as at the place of starting, ready to march; when also they set fire to
their camp, and this they do because it will be easy for them to erect another
camp, and that it may not ever be of use to their enemies. Then do the
trumpets give a sound the third time, that they are to go out, in order to
excite those that on any account are a little tardy, that so no one may be out
of his rank when the army marches. Then does the crier stand at the general's
right hand, and asks them thrice, in their own tongue, whether they be now
ready to go out to war or not? To which they reply as often, with a loud and
cheerful voice, saying, "We are ready." And this they do almost before the
question is asked them: they do this as filled with a kind of martial fury,
and at the same time that they so cry out, they lift up their right hands
also.
5. When, after this, they are gone out of their camp, they all
march without noise, and in a decent manner, and every one keeps his own rank,
as if they were going to war. The footmen are armed with breastplates and
head-pieces, and have swords on each side; but the sword which is upon their
left side is much longer than the other, for that on the right side is not
longer than a span. Those foot-men also that are chosen out from the rest to
be about the general himself have a lance and a buckler, but the rest of the
foot soldiers have a spear and a long buckler, besides a saw and a basket, a
pick-axe and an axe, a thong of leather and a hook, with provisions for three
days, so that a footman hath no great need of a mule to carry his burdens. The
horsemen have a long sword on their right sides, axed a long pole in their
hand; a shield also lies by them obliquely on one side of their horses, with
three or more darts that are borne in their quiver, having broad points, and
not smaller than spears. They have also head-pieces and breastplates, in like
manner as have all the footmen. And for those that are chosen to be about the
general, their armor no way differs from that of the horsemen belonging to
other troops; and he always leads the legions forth to whom the lot assigns
that employment.
6. This is the manner of the marching and resting of the Romans,
as also these are the several sorts of weapons they use. But when they are to
fight, they leave nothing without forecast, nor to be done off-hand, but
counsel is ever first taken before any work is begun, and what hath been there
resolved upon is put in execution presently; for which reason they seldom
commit any errors; and if they have been mistaken at any time, they easily
correct those mistakes. They also esteem any errors they commit upon taking
counsel beforehand to be better than such rash success as is owing to fortune
only; because such a fortuitous advantage tempts them to be inconsiderate,
while consultation, though it may sometimes fail of success, hath this good in
it, that it makes men more careful hereafter; but for the advantages that
arise from chance, they are not owing to him that gains them; and as to what
melancholy accidents happen unexpectedly, there is this comfort in them, that
they had however taken the best consultations they could to prevent them.
7. Now they so manage their preparatory exercises of their
weapons, that not the bodies of the soldiers only, but their souls may also
become stronger: they are moreover hardened for war by fear; for their laws
inflict capital punishments, not only for soldiers running away from the
ranks, but for slothfulness and inactivity, though it be but in a lesser
degree; as are their generals more severe than their laws, for they prevent
any imputation of cruelty toward those under condemnation, by the great
rewards they bestow on the valiant soldiers; and the readiness of obeying
their commanders is so great, that it is very ornamental in peace; but when
they come to a battle, the whole army is but one body, so well coupled
together are their ranks, so sudden are their turnings about, so sharp their
hearing as to what orders are given them, so quick their sight of the ensigns,
and so nimble are their hands when they set to work; whereby it comes to pass
that what they do is done quickly, and what they suffer they bear with the
greatest patience. Nor can we find any examples where they have been conquered
in battle, when they came to a close fight, either by the multitude of the
enemies, or by their stratagems, or by the difficulties in the places they
were in; no, nor by fortune neither, for their victories have been surer to
them than fortune could have granted them. In a case, therefore, where counsel
still goes before action, and where, after taking the best advice, that advice
is followed by so active an army, what wonder is it that Euphrates on the
east, the ocean on the west, the most fertile regions of Libya on the south,
and the Danube and the Rhine on the north, are the limits of this empire? One
might well say that the Roman possessions are not inferior to the Romans
themselves.
8. This account I have given the reader, not so much with the
intention of commending the Romans, as of comforting those that have been
conquered by them, and for the deterring others from attempting innovations
under their government. This discourse of the Roman military conduct may also
perhaps be of use to such of the curious as are ignorant of it, and yet have a
mind to know it. I return now from this digression.
Book 3: Chapter 6: The Army on the
March
2. But as Vespasian had a great mind to fall upon Galilee, he
marched out of Ptolemais, having put his army into that order wherein the
Romans used to march. He ordered those auxiliaries which were lightly armed,
and the archers, to march first, that they might prevent any sudden insults
from the enemy, and might search out the woods that looked suspiciously, and
were capable of ambuscades. Next to these followed that part of the Romans
which was completely armed, both footmen ,and horsemen. Next to these followed
ten out of every hundred, carrying along with them their arms, and what was
necessary to measure out a camp withal; and after them, such as were to make
the road even and straight, and if it were any where rough and hard to be
passed over, to plane it, and to cut down the woods that hindered their march,
that the army might not be in distress, or tired with their march. Behind
these he set such carriages of the army as belonged both to himself and to the
other commanders, with a considerable number of their horsemen for their
security. After these he marched himself, having with him a select body of
footmen, and horsemen, and pikemen. After these came the peculiar cavalry of
his own legion, for there were a hundred and twenty horsemen that peculiarly
belonged to every legion. Next to these came the mules that carried the
engines for sieges, and the other warlike machines of that nature. After these
came the commanders of the cohorts and tribunes, having about them soldiers
chosen out of the rest. Then came the ensigns encompassing the eagle, which is
at the head of every Roman legion, the king, and the strongest of all birds,
which seems to them a signal of dominion, and an omen that they shall conquer
all against whom they march; these sacred ensigns are followed by the
trumpeters. Then came the main army in their squadrons and battalions, with
six men in depth, which were followed at last by a centurion, who, according
to custom, observed the rest. As for the servants of every legion, they all
followed the footmen, and led the baggage of the soldiers, which was borne by
the mules and other beasts of burden. But behind all the legions carne the
whole multitude of the mercenaries; and those that brought up the rear came
last of all for the security of the whole army, being both footmen, and those
in their armor also, with a great number of horsemen.
Source:
Flavius Josephus: The Jewish War. III.5-6, trans. William
Whiston. Complete works of Josephus online at CCEL - http://ccel.wheaton.edu/j/josephus/JOSEPHUS.HTM
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© Paul Halsall May 1998
mailto:halsall@murray.fordham.edu?subject=Ancient
History Document